Reliability of semiconductor lasers and optoelectronic devices /

Detalles Bibliográficos
Clasificación:Libro Electrónico
Otros Autores: Herrick, Robert W., Ueda, Osamu
Formato: Electrónico eBook
Idioma:Inglés
Publicado: Duxford : Woodhead Publishing, 2021.
Colección:Woodhead Publishing series in electronic and optical materials.
Temas:
Semiconductor lasers > Reliability.
Optoelectronic devices > Reliability.
Lasers �a semi-conducteurs > Fiabilit�e.
Dispositifs opto�electroniques > Fiabilit�e.
Optoelectronic devices > Reliability
Semiconductor lasers > Reliability
Acceso en línea:Texto completo
Tabla de Contenidos:
  • Front Cover
  • Reliability of Semiconductor Lasers and Optoelectronic Devices
  • Copyright Page
  • Dedication
  • Contents
  • List of contributors
  • Preface
  • Acknowledgments
  • 1 Introduction to optoelectronic devices
  • 1.1 Introduction
  • 1.2 Optoelectronic applications
  • 1.2.1 InGaN-based light-emitting diodes for high-efficiency lighting
  • 1.2.2 Lasers for sensing arrays
  • 1.2.3 Lasers for data- and telecommunications
  • 1.2.4 The history of the laser
  • 1.3 Principles of operation for optoelectronic components
  • 1.3.1 Light emission
  • 1.3.1.1 Light emission in gas plasmas: a review
  • 1.3.1.2 Stimulated emission in gas lasers
  • 1.3.1.3 Spontaneous and stimulated emission from semiconductors
  • 1.3.2 Light-emitting diodes
  • 1.3.2.1 Carrier confinement
  • 1.3.2.2 Light extraction
  • 1.3.2.3 Heat extraction
  • 1.3.2.4 "Rollover" or "droop"
  • 1.3.2.5 "The green gap"
  • 1.3.3 Lasers
  • 1.3.3.1 What additional design features exist with lasers that are not present with an light-emitting diode?
  • Adding a "population inversion"
  • Adding waveguiding
  • Adding mirrors
  • 1.3.3.2 Vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers
  • 1.3.3.3 Direct modulation
  • 1.3.4 Modulators
  • 1.3.5 Photodetectors
  • 1.3.5.1 Photodiodes
  • 1.3.5.2 Avalanche photodiodes
  • 1.4 Method of fabrication
  • 1.4.1 Epitaxial growth
  • 1.4.2 Wafer fabrication
  • 1.4.3 Wafer test
  • 1.4.4 Singulation and packaging
  • 1.4.5 Burn-in
  • 1.5 Critical metrics
  • 1.5.1 Beam divergence
  • 1.5.2 Single mode versus multimode
  • 1.5.3 Coherence length
  • 1.5.4 Power
  • 1.5.5 Modulation rate
  • 1.6 Laser and light-emitting diode reliability
  • 1.6.1 Reliability qualification
  • 1.6.2 Quality control
  • 1.7 New technology developments
  • 1.7.1 Fiber optics
  • 1.7.2 The future of optoelectronic devices
  • 1.7.2.1 Photonic integrated circuits
  • 1.7.2.2 LiDAR.
  • 1.7.2.3 Quantum dot lasers
  • 1.7.2.4 Photonic band gap/plasmonics
  • 1.7.2.5 High-efficiency lighting and display markets
  • 1.8 Summary
  • References
  • 2 Reliability engineering in optoelectronic devices and fiber optic transceivers
  • 2.1 Reliability engineering organizations and management
  • 2.1.1 Why does it matter? Why do we need reliability testing?
  • 2.1.2 Staffing a reliability department
  • 2.2 Developing a product: design for reliability
  • 2.2.1 Collecting information on customer expectations
  • 2.2.2 Designing in margin and product tradeoffs
  • 2.2.3 Continuous improvement
  • 2.2.4 Ongoing reliability test
  • 2.2.5 Failure mode and effects analysis
  • 2.3 Developing a test plan: standards-based testing versus customized testing
  • 2.3.1 Accelerated aging: an overview
  • 2.3.2 Acceleration factors
  • 2.3.3 Categories of reliability testing
  • 2.3.3.1 Accelerated aging with temperature and bias
  • 2.3.3.2 Corrosion aging
  • 2.3.3.3 Mechanical aging
  • 2.3.3.4 Electrostatic discharge testing
  • 2.3.4 Reliability test standards
  • 2.3.5 Developing a custom reliability test program for subcomponents
  • 2.3.5.1 Device acceleration models
  • 2.3.5.2 Acceleration risk
  • 2.3.5.3 Limitations in reliability testing
  • 2.3.6 Maverick versus wearout reliability failure modes
  • 2.4 Test engineering and data collection
  • 2.4.1 Subcomponent-, component-, and system-level reliability testing
  • 2.4.2 Building and running a reliability test lab
  • 2.5 Data collection and analysis
  • 2.5.1 Data collection and storage
  • 2.5.2 Data reduction
  • 2.5.3 Key terms in reliability analysis
  • 2.5.4 Reliability models
  • 2.5.5 Stress-strength model
  • 2.5.6 Developing a burn-in for the product
  • 2.5.7 Calculating random failure rates
  • 2.5.8 Writing reliability reports
  • 2.6 Failure analysis
  • 2.7 Physics of failure and common failure mechanisms.
  • 2.8 Product release, ongoing monitoring, and postrelease support
  • 2.9 Conclusion
  • 2.9.1 Future challenges in optoelectronic reliability engineering
  • 2.9.2 Chapter summary and take-aways
  • 2.9.3 Suggestions for resources for further information
  • References
  • 3 Case studies in fiber optic reliability
  • 3.1 Introduction
  • 3.2 Group 1: issues that were caught before product release
  • 3.2.1 Case 1: "Hey, you cooked my VCSELs!"
  • 3.2.2 Case 2: new integrated circuit packaging creates problems
  • 3.2.3 Case 3: great mean lifetime, but a wide distribution of lifetime
  • 3.2.4 Case 4: locked into a "no-burn-in" product definition
  • 3.3 Group 2: cases that had reliability issues from the start, but were not detected in the reliability qualification
  • 3.3.1 Case 5: reliability monitor fails to detect ongoing reliability shortcomings
  • 3.3.2 Case 6: "But the part's never going to operate at 85�C, 85% relative humidity!!!"
  • 3.3.3 Case 7: broken design rules + no reliability testing=disaster
  • 3.3.4 Case 8: compact disk lasers in gigabaud link modules
  • 3.4 Group 3: parts that were reliable after release, but later developed reliability issues during high-volume manufacturing
  • 3.4.1 Case 9: the dangers of copper contamination
  • 3.4.1.1 Case 9a: The flaming power supply
  • 3.4.1.2 Case study 9b: copper contamination in p-metal target
  • 3.4.1.3 Case study 9c: no supplier purity checks
  • 3.4.2 Case 10: high burn-in failure rate foretells early wearout failure
  • 3.5 Conclusion
  • References
  • 4 Materials science of defects in GaAs-based semiconductor lasers
  • 4.1 Introduction
  • 4.2 Characteristics of simple point defects in GaAs
  • 4.2.1 Point defect thermodynamics and the Fermi level effect
  • 4.2.2 Negative temperature coefficient of gallium vacancies in GaAs
  • 4.2.3 Relevance to MOCVD and MBE growth
  • 4.2.4 Quasi Fermi level effect.
  • 4.2.5 DX and EL2 defects
  • 4.3 Dislocations in GaAs
  • 4.3.1 Basic properties of dislocations
  • 4.3.2 Structure of dislocations
  • 4.3.3 Thermal glide of dislocations
  • 4.3.3.1 Glide velocity
  • 4.3.3.2 Diffusive glide
  • 4.3.4 Point defect and solute atmospheres around dislocations
  • 4.3.4.1 Breakaway stress
  • 4.3.4.2 Experimental evidence
  • 4.3.5 Thermal climb of dislocations
  • 4.3.5.1 Overview
  • 4.3.5.2 Osmotic force
  • 4.3.5.3 Climb in the two-atom basis of GaAs
  • 4.3.5.4 Other considerations
  • 4.3.6 Electrical and optical properties
  • 4.3.6.1 Overview
  • 4.3.6.2 Origin of traps
  • 4.3.6.3 A connection between electronic states and glide velocity
  • 4.3.6.4 Optical properties of dislocations
  • 4.4 Epitaxial integration of GaAs-based materials on silicon
  • 4.4.1 Critical thickness for dislocation nucleation
  • 4.4.2 Dislocations formed in the heteroepitaxy of GaAs on Si
  • 4.4.2.1 Increase film thickness
  • 4.4.2.2 Thermal cyclic anneals
  • 4.4.2.3 Dislocation filter layers
  • 4.4.2.4 Geometric filters
  • 4.5 Recombination-enhanced processes
  • 4.5.1 Background
  • 4.5.1.1 The phonon kick model
  • 4.5.2 Recombination-enhanced dislocation glide
  • 4.5.2.1 Features of REDG
  • 4.5.2.2 Mechanism of REDG
  • 4.5.2.3 Impact on lasers
  • 4.5.3 Recombination-enhanced dislocation climb
  • 4.5.3.1 Features of REDC
  • 4.5.3.2 Origin of point defects
  • 4.5.4 Tolerance to rapid degradation
  • 4.5.4.1 Bandgap energy
  • 4.5.4.2 Electronic states associated with defects
  • 4.5.4.3 Thermodynamics of defects
  • 4.5.4.4 External and internal strain
  • 4.6 Outlook
  • References
  • 5 Grown-in defects and thermal instability affecting the reliability of lasers: III-Vs versus III-nitrides
  • 5.1 Introduction
  • 5.2 Grown-in defects in III-Vs semiconductors for optoelectronics
  • 5.2.1 Classification of grown-in defects
  • 5.2.2 Interface defects 1.
  • 5.2.3 Interface defects 2
  • 5.2.3.1 Change in the nature of dislocations (formation of pure edge or screw dislocations)
  • 5.2.3.2 Annihilation reaction of misfit dislocations
  • 5.2.3.3 Formation of the dislocation network at an intersecting point
  • 5.2.4 Bulk defects
  • 5.2.4.1 Defects in heavily Fe-doped InP crystals
  • 5.2.4.2 Defects in heavily (or highly) doped InGaAsP crystals
  • 5.2.4.3 Defects in heavily or highly doped AlGaAs crystals
  • 5.2.4.4 Defects in undoped InGaAsP crystals on GaAs substrates
  • 5.3 Influence of grown-in defects on device reliability and degradation in III-V based optoelectronics
  • 5.3.1 Influence of dislocations on reliability
  • 5.3.2 Two-step degradation processes (REDG and REDC)
  • 5.3.2.1 Two-step degradation process in ridge-waveguide-type lasers (see Fig. 5.20)
  • 5.3.2.2 Two-step degradation process in AlGaAs VCSELs (see Fig. 5.21)
  • 5.3.3 Influence of dislocation loops on reliability
  • 5.3.4 Influence of precipitates in heavily doped InGaAsP crystals on reliability
  • 5.3.5 Influence of inclusions (In-rich) on reliability
  • 5.4 Grown-in defects in III-nitrides
  • 5.4.1 Misfit dislocations
  • 5.4.2 Threading dislocation and optical properties
  • 5.4.3 V-defects in GaN
  • 5.4.4 Influence of dislocations on device reliability in GaN-based laser diodes
  • 5.4.5 Mg-related pyramidal defects
  • 5.4.6 Gradual degradation of GaN-based laser diodes
  • 5.5 Composition-modulated structures and ordered structures in III-V based optoelectronics
  • 5.5.1 Composition-modulated structures in III-V alloy semiconductors
  • 5.5.1.1 Basic structure
  • 5.5.1.2 Degree of compositional variation in the modulated structure
  • 5.5.1.3 Origins of the two types of periodicities
  • 5.5.1.4 Origin for the direction of modulation
  • 5.5.2 Ordered structures in III-V alloy semiconductors.

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