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Corrosion control in the oil and gas industry /

The effect of corrosion in the oil industry leads to the failure of parts. This failure results in shutting down the plant to clean the facility. The annual cost of corrosion to the oil and gas industry in the United States alone is estimated at 27 billion (According to NACE International)-leading s...

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Detalles Bibliográficos
Clasificación:	Libro Electrónico
Autor principal:	Papavinasam, Sankara
Formato:	Electrónico eBook
Idioma:	Inglés
Publicado:	Burlington : Elsevier Science, 2013.
Temas:	Petroleum pipelines > Corrosion. Pétrole > Pipelines > Corrosion. TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING > Power Resources > General.
Acceso en línea:	Texto completo

Tabla de Contenidos:

Machine-generated contents note: 1.1. Introduction
1.2. Energy from hydrocarbons
1.3. What are hydrocarbons?
1.3.1. Alkanes (Paraffins)
1.3.2. Cycloalkanes (Naphthenes)
1.3.3. Aromatic hydrocarbons
1.4. Hydrocarbon sources
1.4.1. Conventional
1.4.2. Unconventional
1.4.3. Renewables
1.5. History of the oil and gas industry
1.6. Regulations
1.7. The significance and impact of corrosion in the oil and gas industry
1.7.1. Production sector
1.7.2. Transportation
pipeline sector
1.7.3. Transportation
other modes sector
1.7.4. Storage tank sector
1.7.5. Refinery sector
1.7.6. Distribution sector
1.7.7. Special sector
References
2.1. Introduction
2.2. Drill pipe
2.3. Casing
2.4. Downhole tubular
2.5. Acidizing pipe
2.6. Water generators and injectors
2.7. Gas generators (Teritiary recovery)
2.8. Open mining
2.9. In situ production
2.9.1. Cyclic steam stimulation (CSS)
2.9.2. Steam-assisted gravity drainage (SAGD)
2.9.3. Toe-to-heel air injection (THAI) or fireflooding (In situ combustion)
2.9.4. Cold heavy-oil production with sand (CHOPS)
2.9.5. Vapour extraction process (VAPEX)
2.10. Wellhead
2.11. Production pipelines
2.12. Heavy-crude oil pipelines
2.13. Hydrotransport pipelines
2.14. Gas dehydration facilities
2.14.1. Oil separation
2.14.2. Acid gas removal
2.14.3. Water removal
2.15. Oil separators
2.15.1. Oil-gas separator
2.15.2. Oil-water separator
2.15.3. Oil-solid separator
2.16. Recovery centres (Extraction plants)
2.17. Upgraders
2.18. Lease tanks
2.19. Waste water pipelines
2.20. Tailing pipelines
2.21. Transmission pipelines
2.21.1. Gas transmission pipelines
2.21.2. Oil transmission pipelines
2.22. Compressor stations
2.23. Pump stations
2.24. Pipeline accessories
2.25. Oil tankers
2.26. Liquid natural gas (LNG) transportation
2.27. Transportation by railcars
2.28. Transportation by trucks
2.29. Gas storage
2.30. Oil storage tanks
2.31. Refineries
2.31.1. Desalter unit
2.31.2. Atmospheric distillation unit (ADU)
2.31.3. Vacuum distillation unit (VDU)
2.31.4. Hydrotreating unit
2.31.5. Catalytic cracking unit (CCU)
2.31.6. Thermal cracking unit (TCU)
2.31.7. Hydrocracking unit (HCU)
2.31.8. Steam cracking unit (SCU)
2.31.9. Mercaptan oxidation unit (Merox)
2.31.10. Catalytic reforming unit (CRU)
2.31.11. Visbreaker unit
2.31.12. Coker
2.31.13. Gas plants
2.31.14. Alkylation unit
2.31.15. Isomerization unit
2.31.16. Gas-treating unit
2.31.17. Water stripper
2.31.18. Claus sulphur plant
2.31.19. Heat exchangers
2.31.20. Cooling towers
2.31.21. Solvent extraction unit
2.31.22. Steam reforming unit
2.31.23. Methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE) unit
2.31.24. Polymerization unit
2.31.25. Hydrogen plant
2.31.26. Ammonia plant
2.31.27. Methanol plant
2.31.28. Other units
2.32. Product pipelines
2.33. Terminals
2.34. City gate and local distribution centres
2.35. Compressed natural gas (CNG)
2.36. Diluent pipelines
2.37. High vapour pressure pipelines
2.38. CO2 pipelines
2.39. Hydrogen pipelines
2.40. Ammonia pipelines
2.41. Biofuel infrastructure
2.41.1. Bioethanol
2.41.2. Biodiesel
Bibliography
References
3.1. Introduction
3.2. Properties of metals and alloys
3.2.1. Mechanical properties
3.2.2. Phase diagram
3.2.3. Metallography
3.3. Types of metals and alloys
3.3.1. Carbon steels
3.3.2. Cast irons
3.3.3. Alloy steels
3.3.4. Copper alloys
3.3.5. Stainless steels
3.3.6. Nickel alloys
3.3.7. Titanium alloys
3.3.8. Corrosion-resistant alloys
3.4. Classification of metals and alloys
3.4.1. AISI
3.4.2. API
3.4.3. ASTM
3.4.4. ASME
3.4.5. UNS
3.5. Non-metals
3.5.1. Plastics
3.5.2. Concrete
3.5.3. Cement
References
4.1. Introduction
4.2. Flow
4.2.1. Pressure drop
4.2.2. Flow regimes
4.2.3. Water accumulation
4.2.4. Effect of flow on corrosion
4.3. Oil phase
4.3.1. Chemical and physical constituents
4.3.2. Emulsion type
4.3.3. Wettability
4.3.4. Partition of chemicals between oil and water phases
4.4. Water (Brine or Aqueous) phase
4.4.1. Effect of anions
4.4.2. Effect of cations
4.4.3. The combined effect of anions and cations
4.5. CO2
4.5.1. Effect of temperature
4.5.2. Effect of velocity
4.5.3. Effect of microstructure
4.5.4. Effect of pH
4.5.5. Effect of H2S
4.6. H2S
4.6.1. Effect of temperature
4.6.2. Effect of velocity
4.6.3. Effect of microstructure
4.6.4. Effect of pH
4.6.5. Effect of CO2
4.7. O2
4.7.1. Effect of temperature
4.7.2. Effect of velocity
4.7.3. Effect of microstructure
4.7.4. Effect of pH
4.8. Sand and solids
4.9. Microorganisms
4.10. Pressure
4.11. Temperature
4.12. pH
4.13. Organic acids
4.13.1. Aliphatic acids
4.13.2. Naphthenic acids
4.14. Mercury
References
5.1. Introduction
5.2. Electrochemical nature of corrosion
5.3. General corrosion
5.4. Galvanic corrosion
5.5. Pitting corrosion
5.6. Intergranular corrosion
5.7. Selective leaching (Dealloying)
5.8. Deposition corrosion
5.9. Crevice corrosion
5.10. Cavitation-corrosion
5.11. Mechanical forces
5.12. Fretting corrosion
5.13. Underdeposit corrosion
5.14. Microbiologically-influenced corrosion
5.14.1. Classical mechanism
5.14.2. Modern mechanism
5.15. High-temperature corrosion
5.15.1. Gaseous environments
5.15.2. Liquid (Molten) environments
5.16. Corrosion fatigue
5.17. Stress-corrosion cracking (SCC)
5.18. The hydrogen effect
5.18.1. Hydrogen blistering (HB)
5.18.2. Hydrogen-induced cracking (HIC)
5.18.3. Hydrogen embrittlement (HE)
5.18.4. Sulphide stress-cracking (SSC)
5.18.5. High-temperature hydrogen-induced cracking (HTHIC)
5.18.6. Hydrogen-induced disbondment (HID)
5.18.7. Hydrogen grooving
5.19. Liquid metal-cracking (LMC) or liquid metal embrittlement (LME)
5.20. Corrosion under protective coating and corrosion under insulation (CUT)
5.21. Stray current corrosion
5.22. Telluric current corrosion
5.23. Alternating-current (AC) corrosion
5.24. Top-of-the-line corrosion (TLC)
Bibliography
References
6.1. Introduction
6.2. Hydrogen effects
6.2.1. Susceptibility of the material
6.2.2. Severity of the environment
6.3. General corrosion of carbon steel
6.3.1. The de Waard-Milliams models
6.3.2. The Srinivasan model
6.3.3. The Crolet model
6.3.4. The Nesic model
6.3.5. The Mishra model
6.3.6. The Dayalan model
6.3.7. The Anderko model
6.3.8. Oddo model
6.3.9. Pots model
6.3.10. Garber model
6.4. Pitting corrosion of CRAs
6.4.1. PREN
6.4.2. Laboratory evaluation
6.4.3. Electrochemical models
6.5. Localized pitting corrosion of carbon steel
6.5.1. The Papavinasam model
6.6. Erosion-corrosion
6.6.1. The Zhou model
6.6.2. The Nesic model
6.6.3. The Shadley model
6.7. Microbiologically-influenced corrosion
6.7.1. The Checkworks model
6.7.2. The union electric model
6.7.3. The Lutey model
6.7.4. The Pots model
6.7.5. The Maxwell model
6.7.6. The Sooknah model
6.8. Scaling
6.8.1. The Langelier saturation index (LSI)
6.8.2. The Ryznar stability index (RSI)
6.8.3. Other indices
6.9. High-temperature corrosion
6.10. Top-of-the-line corrosion (TLC)
6.10.1. The DeWaard model
6.10.2. The Pots model
6.10.3. The Gunaltum model
6.10.4. The Nyborg model
References
7.1. Introduction
7.2. Pigging
7.2.1. Sphere pigs
7.2.2. Foam pigs
7.2.3. Cast pigs
7.2.4. Mandrel pigs
7.2.5. Brush pigs
7.2.6. Plow-blade pigs
7.2.7. Bidirectional pigs
7.2.8. Pin-wheel pigs
7.2.9. Multi-diameter pigs
-- 7.2.10. Bypass pigs
7.2.11. Gel pigs
7.2.12. Special pigs
7.3. Drying
7.3.1. Injection of glycol or methanol
7.3.2. Air drying
7.3.3. Vacuum drying
7.3.4. Purging with nitrogen
7.4. Corrosion inhibitors
7.4.1. Selection of corrosion inhibitors
7.4.2. Application of corrosion inhibitors
7.4.3. Volume of corrosion inhibitor
7.4.4. Inhibitor availability
7.4.5. Other types of inhibitors
7.5. Biocides
7.5.1. Types
7.5.2. Selection
7.5.3. Application
7.6. Scale inhibitors
7.7. Wax and asphaltene inhibitors
7.8. Hydrate inhibitors
7.9. Internal coatings and linings
7.9.1. Polymeric liners
7.9.2. Clad materials
7.9.3. Refractive liners
7.10. Cathodic protection
7.11. Process optimization
7.11.1. pH control
7.11.2. Oxygen control
7.11.3. Bacterial control
References
8.1. Introduction
8.2. Laboratory measurement
8.2.1. Hydrogen effects
8.2.2. General and localized corrosion
8.2.3. Mechanical forces
8.2.4. Microbiologically-influenced corrosion (MIC)
8.2.5. Scaling
8.2.6. High-temperature corrosion.
Note continued: 8.2.7. Crevice corrosion
8.2.8. Intergranular corrosion
8.3. Field monitoring
8.3.1. Mass loss
8.3.2. Electrical resistance (ER) probe
8.3.3. Polarization resistance
8.3.4. Electrochemical noise
8.3.5. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS)
8.3.6. Potentiodynamic polarization
8.3.7. Galvanic couples
8.3.8. Multi-electrode technique
8.3.9. Ultrasonic
8.3.10. Magnetic flux leakage (MFL)
8.3.11. Electromagnetic
Eddy current
8.3.12. Electromagnetic
remote field technique (RFT)
8.3.13. Radiography
8.3.14. Electrical field mapping (EFM)
8.3.15. Hydrogen probe
8.3.16. Corrosion potential (Ec0)
8.3.17. MIC monitoring techniques
8.3.18. Residual corrosion inhibitors
8.4. Field inspection
8.4.1. Physical inspection
8.4.2. Boroscopy
8.4.3. Fibrescopy
8.4.4. Liquid penetrant inspection
8.4.5. Magnetic particle inspection (MPI)
8.4.6. Thermography
8.4.7. Inline inspection (ILI)
magnetic flux leakage (MFL)
8.4.8. Inline inspection
ultrasonic (ILI-UT)
8.4.9. Other inline inspection tools
8.4.10. Reliability of corrosion data
References
9.1. Introduction
9.2. Coatings
9.2.1. Polymeric coatings
9.2.2. Girth weld coatings
9.2.3. Repair coatings
9.2.4. Insulators
9.2.5. Metallic (thermal spray) coatings
9.2.6. Concrete coatings
9.3. Cathodic protection
9.3.1. Principle
9.3.2. Amount of current
9.3.3. Current source
9.3.4. Potential criteria
9.3.5. Applicability of cathodic protection
9.3.6. Factors influencing the effectiveness of cathodic protection
9.3.7. Stray currents
9.3.8. Side effects of cathodic protection
9.3.9. Materials and accessories
References
10.1. Introduction
10.2. Modelling corrosion control
10.2.1. Modes of failure of external polymeric coatings
10.2.2. Laboratory methodologies
10.2.3. Modelling using laboratory data
10.2.4. Modelling using field operating conditions
10.2.5. Modelling using above-ground surveys
10.2.6. Modelling using below-ground measurements
10.2.7. Modelling the effect of joint coatings
10.2.8. Modelling the effect of insulators
10.2.9. Modelling the effect of metallic coatings
10.2.10. Modelling the effect of concrete coatings
10.3. Modelling corrosion
10.3.1. Modelling localized pitting corrosion
10.3.2. Modelling stress corrosion cracking
10.3.3. AC corrosion
References
11.1. Introduction
11.2. Holiday detection
11.3. Above-ground monitoring techniques
11.3.1. Close interval survey (CIS)
11.3.2. Direct-current voltage gradient technique (DCVG)
11.3.3. Cathodic protection current requirement technique (CPCR)
11.3.4. Coating conductance technique (CC)
11.3.5. Alternating-current voltage gradient technique (ACVG)
11.3.6. Pearson survey (PS)
11.3.7. Electromagnetic current attenuation (ECAT)
11.3.8. Transwave system technique (TS)
11.3.9. Electrochemical impedence spectroscopy (EIS)
11.3.10. Infrared camera
11.3.11. Cautions in using above-ground monitoring techniques
11.4. Remote monitoring
11.5. In-line inspection
11.5.1. Metal loss tools
11.5.2. Crack detection tools
11.5.3. Other tools
11.6. Hydrostatic testing
11.7. Below-ground inspection
11.7.1. Soil resistivity
11.7.2. Visual inspection
11.7.3. Moisture content
11.7.4. pH
11.7.5. Chemical analysis
11.7.6. Microbial analysis
11.7.7. Corrosion characterization
References
12.1. Introduction
12.2. Types of measurement
12.2.1. Offline measurement
12.2.2. Online measurement
12.3. Measured properties
12.3.1. Physical properties of materials
12.3.2. Chemical properties of materials
12.3.3. Volume of oil
12.3.4. Volume of gas
12.3.5. Physical properties of oil
12.3.6. Physical properties of gas
12.3.7. Physical properties of water
12.3.8. Flow
12.3.9. Pressure
12.3.10. Temperature
12.3.11. Chemical properties of oil
12.3.12. Chemical properties of gas
12.3.13. Chemical properties of water
12.3.14. Sand measurement
12.3.15. Fouling
12.3.16. Soil properties
12.3.17. Environmental properties
12.4. Precautions in using measured data for corrosion control
References
13.1. Introduction
13.2. Equipment
13.2.1. Types of maintenance
13.2.2. Stages for implementation of maintenance
13.2.3. Activities during maintenance
13.2.4. Extent of maintenance
13.3. Workforce
13.3.1. Capacity
13.3.2. Education
13.3.3. Training
13.3.4. Experience
13.3.5. Knowledge
13.3.6. Quality
13.4. Data
13.4.1. Collection
13.4.2. Collection modes
13.4.3. Verification
13.4.4. Databases
13.4.5. Structure
13.4.6. Processing
13.4.7. Output and display
13.4.8. Storage
13.5. Communication
13.5.1. Self
13.5.2. Corrosion team
13.5.3. Integrity team
13.5.4. Subordinates
13.5.5. Senior management
13.5.6. Suppliers and service providers
13.5.7. Workers
13.5.8. Regulators
13.5.9. Peers
13.5.10. Stakeholders
13.5.11. General public
13.5.12. Media
13.5.13. Lawyers and court
13.5.14. General
13.6. Associated activities
References
14.1. Introduction
14.2. Risk assessment
14.2.1. Occurrence
14.2.2. Likelihood
14.2.3. Consequence
14.2.4. Quantification
14.3. Risk management
14.3.1. Risk-cost relationship
14.3.2. Methods to estimate the cost (Economics)
14.3.3. Methods to optimize corrosion cost
14.4. Corrosion risks
14.5. Activities of corrosion management
14.5.1. Segmentation of infrastructure
14.5.2. Corrosion risks
14.5.3. Location of infrastructure
14.5.4. Quantification of risk
14.5.5. Life of infrastructure
14.5.6. Materials of construction
14.5.7. Corrosion allowance
14.5.8. Normal operating conditions
14.5.9. Upset conditions (Operating excursions) in the upstream segment
14.5.10. Upset conditions (Operating excursions)
14.5.11. Mechanisms of corrosion
14.5.12. Maximum corrosion rate (Internal surfaces)
14.5.13. Maximum corrosion rate (External surfaces)
14.5.14. Installation of proper accessories
14.5.15. Commissioning
14.5.16. Mitigation to control internal corrosion
14.5.17. Mitigation strategies to control internal corrosion
14.5.18. Mitigated internal corrosion rate
target
14.5.19. Effectiveness of the internal corrosion mitigation strategy
14.5.20. Selection of mitigation strategies to control external corrosion
14.5.21. Implementation of mitigation strategies to control external corrosion
14.5.22. Mitigated external corrosion rate
target
14.5.23. Effectiveness of external corrosion mitigation strategy
14.5.24. Internal corrosion monitoring techniques
14.5.25. Number of probes to monitor internal corrosion
14.5.26. Internal corrosion rates from monitoring techniques
14.5.27. Accuracy of internal corrosion monitoring techniques
14.5.28. External corrosion monitoring techniques
14.5.29. Number of probes to monitor external corrosion
14.5.30. External corrosion rate from monitoring technique
14.5.31. Accuracy of external corrosion monitoring techniques
14.5.32. Frequency of inspection
14.5.33. Percentage difference between internal corrosion rates from monitoring and inspection techniques
14.5.34. Percentage difference between external corrosion rates from monitoring and inspection techniques
14.5.35. Measurement data availability
14.5.36. Validity and utilization of measured data
14.5.37. Procedures for establishing the maintenance schedule
14.5.38. Maintenance activities
14.5.39. Internal corrosion rate after maintenance activities
14.5.40. Percentage difference between internal corrosion rate before and after maintenance activities
14.5.41. External corrosion rate after maintenance activities
14.5.42. Percentage difference between external corrosion rate before and after maintenance activity
14.5.43. Workforce
-- capacity, skills, education, and training
14.5.44. Workforce
experience, knowledge, and quality
14.5.45. Data management
Data to database
14.5.46. Data management
Data from database
14.5.47. Internal communication strategy
14.5.48. External communication strategy
14.5.49. Corrosion management review for continuous improvement
14.5.50. Failure frequency
References.

Corrosion control in the oil and gas industry /

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