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Electrochemical energy storage for renewable sources and grid balancing /

"Electricity from renewable sources of energy is plagued by fluctuations (due to variations in wind strength or the intensity of insolation) resulting in a lack of stability if the energy supplied from such sources is used in 'real time'. An important solution to this problem is to st...

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Detalles Bibliográficos
Clasificación:	Libro Electrónico
Otros Autores:	Moseley, Patrick T. (Editor ), Garche, Jürgen (Editor ), Adelmann, Peter (Contribuidor)
Formato:	Electrónico eBook
Idioma:	Inglés
Publicado:	Amsterdam, Netherlands : Elsevier, 2015.
Temas:	Renewable energy sources. Renewable Energy Énergies renouvelables. TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING > Mechanical.
Acceso en línea:	Texto completo

Tabla de Contenidos:

Machine-generated contents note: pt. I Introduction
Renewable Energies, Markets and Storage Technology Classification
1. The Exploitation of Renewable Sources of Energy for Power Generation / Anthony Price
1.1. Energy and Society
1.2. Energy and Electricity
1.2.1. Power System History and Operation
1.2.2. Electricity Generation
1.2.3. Power Systems Operation
1.2.4. Integration of Renewable Energy into Power Networks
1.3. The Role of Energy Storage
1.4. International Comparisons
1.5. Types and Applications of Energy Storage
1.5.1. Thermal Energy Storage
1.5.2. Hydrogen Energy Storage as an Energy Vector
1.5.3. Compressed Air Energy Storage
1.5.4. Mechanical Systems
1.5.5. Novel Electrochemical Storage
1.6. Commercialization of Energy Storage
References
2. Classification of Storage Systems / Dirk Uwe Sauer
2.1. Introduction and Motivation
2.2. Flexibility Options
2.3. Different Types of Classifications
2.3.1. Classification According to the Needs of the Grid
2.3.2. Classification According to the Supply Time of the Storage System
2.3.3. Classification as Single-purpose and Double-use Storage Systems
2.3.4. Classification According to the Position in the Grid and the Service Offers
2.4. Conclusion
3. Challenges of Power Systems / Albert Moser
3.1. Power System Requirements
3.2. The Role of Storage Systems for Future Challenges in the Electrical Network
3.2.1. Transmission System
3.2.2. Distribution Network
3.3. Demand-Side Management and Other Alternatives to Storage Systems
3.3.1. Demand-Side Management
3.3.2. Thermal Storage Systems
3.4. Supply of Reserve Power
3.4.1. Reserve Qualities
3.4.2. Reserve Power in Germany
References
4. Applications and Markets for Grid-Connected Storage Systems / Dirk Uwe Sauer
4.1. Introduction
4.2. Frequency Control
4.2.1. Instantaneous Reserve/Spinning Reserve
4.2.2. Primary Control Reserve
4.2.3. Secondary Control Reserve
4.2.4. Tertiary/Minute Control Reserve
4.3. Self-supply
4.3.1. Market Situation
4.3.2. Market Size
4.3.3. Operation Profile
4.3.4. Barriers to Entry
4.3.5. Competitors
4.4. Uninterruptible Power Supply
4.4.1. Market Situation
4.4.2. Operation Profile
4.4.3. Competition
4.5. Arbitrage/Energy Trading
4.5.1. Market Situation
4.5.2. Market Size
4.5.3. Operation Profile
4.5.4. Barriers to Entry
4.5.5. Competitors
4.6. Load Levelling/Peak-Shaving
4.6.1. Market Situation
4.6.2. Operation Profile
4.6.3. Competitors
4.7. Other Markets and Applications
4.7.1. Microgrids
4.7.2. Island Grids/Off-grid/Weak Grids
4.7.3. Transmission and Distribution Upgrade Deferral
4.7.4. Stabilizing Conventional Generation/Ramp Rate Support
4.7.5. Ancillary Services
References
5. Existing Markets for Storage Systems in Off-Grid Applications / Peter Adelmann
5.1. Different Sources of Renewable Energy
5.2. Impact of the User
5.2.1. Telecom Repeaters
5.2.2. Rural Schools and Rural Hospitals
5.2.3. Solar-Powered Street Lights
5.2.4. Applications in the Leisure Market
5.2.5. Rural Electrification: Mini-Grids
5.2.6. Solar Home Systems
5.2.7. Pico Solar Systems
5.2.8. Market Overview of 'Off-Grid' Systems
6. Review of the Need for Storage Capacity Depending on the Share of Renewable Energies / Bert Droste-Franke
6.1. Introductory Remarks
6.2. Selected Studies with German Focus
6.3. Selected Studies with European Focus
6.4. Discussion of Study Results
6.4.1. Required Electric and Storage Power
6.4.2. Energy Capacity Need
6.4.3. Transferability of the Results to Other Regions
6.5. Conclusions
Abbreviations
References
pt. II Storage Technologies
7. Overview of Non-electrochemical Storage Technologies / Dirk Uwe Sauer
7.1. Introduction
7.2. 'Electrical' Storage Systems
7.2.1. Superconductive Magnetic Energy Storage
7.2.2. Capacitors
7.3. 'Mechanical' Storage Systems
7.3.1. Pumped Hydro
7.3.2. Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES)
7.3.3. Flywheels
7.4. 'Thermoelectric' Energy Storage
7.5. Storage Technologies at the Concept Stage
7.6. Summary
References
8. Hydrogen Production from Renewable Energies-Electrolyzer Technologies / Jurgen Garche
8.1. Introduction
8.1.1. General Approach
8.1.2. Historical Background
8.2. Fundamentals of Water Electrolysis
8.2.1. Thermodynamic Consideration
8.2.2. Kinetic Losses Inside an Electrolysis Cell
8.2.3. Efficiency of a Water Electrolyzer
8.3. Alkaline Water Electrolysis
8.3.1. Cell Components and Stack Design
8.3.2. System Layout and Peripheral Components
8.3.3. Gas Quality, Efficiency, and Lifetime
8.3.4. Regenerative Loads
8.4. PEM Water Electrolysis
8.4.1. Cell Components and Stack Design
8.4.2. System Layout and Peripheral Components
8.4.3. Gas Quality, Efficiency, and Lifetime
8.4.4. Regenerative Loads
8.5. High-Temperature Water Electrolysis
8.5.1. Cell Components and Stack Design
8.5.2. System Layout and Peripheral Components
8.5.3. Electrical Performance, Efficiency and Lifetime
8.5.4. Regenerative Loads
8.6. Manufacturers and Developers of Electrolyzers
8.7. Cost Issues
8.8. Summary
Acronyms/Abbreviations
References
9. Large-Scale Hydrogen Energy Storage / Erik Wolf
9.1. Introduction
9.2. Electrolyzer
9.2.1. Introduction
9.2.2. PEM Electrolysis Principle
9.2.3. Parameters of an Envisaged Large-Scale Electrolyzer System
9.2.4. Development Roadmap for PEM Electrolyzer Systems at Siemens
9.3. Hydrogen Gas Storage
9.3.1. Underground Hydrogen Storage in Salt Caverns
9.3.2. Utilization of Artificial, Mined Underground Salt Caverns and Their Potential
9.4. Reconversion of the Hydrogen into Electricity
9.4.1. Aspects Related to the Electricity Grid
9.4.2. Power to Gas Solution
9.5. Cost Issues: Levellized Cost of Energy
9.6. Actual Status and Outlook
Acknowledgment
References
10. Hydrogen Conversion into Electricity and Thermal Energy by Fuel Cells: Use of H2-Systems and Batteries / Ludwig Jorissen
10.1. Introduction
10.2. Electrochemical Power Sources
10.3. Hydrogen-Based Energy Storage Systems
10.3.1. Hydrogen Production by Water Electrolysis
10.3.2. Hydrogen Storage
10.3.3. Fuel Cells
10.4. Energy Flow in the Hydrogen Energy Storage System
10.5. Demonstration Projects
10.5.1. Freiburg Energy-Independent Solar Home
10.5.2. PAFC in Combined Heat and Power Generation in Hamburg
10.5.3. The Phoebus Project
10.5.4. Utsira Island
10.5.5. Myrthe
10.5.6. Hydrogen Community Lolland
10.5.7. MW-Scale PEMFC Demonstration by FirstEnergy Corporation
10.5.3. MW-PEMFC System Operated by Solvay
10.6. Case Study: A General Energy Storage System Layout for Maximized Use of Renewable Energies
10.6.1. Short-term Energy Storage Options
10.6.2. Storage Efficiency Considerations of the Hybrid System
10.7. Case Study of a PV-Based System Minimizing Grid Interaction
10.7.1. Energy Harvest from a Photovoltaic System
10.7.2. Battery Storage
10.7.3. Electrolyzer and Hydrogen Storage System
10.7.4. Fuel Cell System
10.7.5. Operating Strategy
10.7.6. Simulation Result
10.8. Conclusions
10.9. Summary
References
11. PEM Electrolyzers and PEM Regenerative Fuel Cells Industrial View / Jason Willey
11.1. Introduction
11.2. General Technology Description
11.2.1. Background of Water Electrolysis
11.2.2. Cell and System Designs
11.2.3. Typical Applications
11.3. Electrical Performance and Lifetime
11.3.1. Efficiency
11.3.2. Energy and Power Densities
11.3.3. Lifetime and Ageing Processes
11.3.4. Dynamic Behaviour
11.4. Necessary Accessories
11.4.1. Electronics
11.4.2. Monitoring Systems
11.4.3. Safety Devices
11.4.4. Diagnostics
11.5. Environmental Issues
11.5.1. Materials Availability
11.5.2. Life-Cycle Analysis
-- 11.5.3. Critical Legislative Restriction
11.5.4. Energy for System Production
11.6. Cost Issues
11.6.1. Installation Costs
11.6.2. Operation Costs
11.7. Actual Status
11.7.1. Overview of Industrial Activities (Existing Applications and Markets)
11.7.2. R & D Activities (Major Research Institutions and Companies)
11.8. Summary
References
12. Energy Carriers Made from Hydrogen / Ferdi Schuth
12.1. Introduction
12.2. Hydrogen Production and Distribution
12.3. Methane
12.4. Methanol
12.5. Dimethyl Ether
12.6. Fischer-Tropsch Synfuels
12.7. Higher Alcohols and Ethers
12.8. Ammonia
12.9. Conclusion and Outlook
Abbreviations
References
13. Energy Storage with Lead-Acid Batteries / Patrick T. Moseley
13.1. Fundamentals of Lead-Acid Technology
13.1.1. Basic Cell Reactions
13.1.2. Materials of Construction
13.1.3. Cell and Battery Designs
13.1.4. Typical Applications
13.2. Electrical Performance and Ageing
13.2.1. Efficiency
13.2.2. Specific Energy/Power; Energy/Power Density
13.2.3. Lifetime: Influence of Operating Conditions on Aging Processes
13.2.4. Capacity
13.2.5. Self-Discharge.
Note continued: 13.2.6. Dynamic Behavioer
13.3. Battery Management
13.3.1. State-of-Charge Measurement
13.3.2. Charging Methods
13.3.3. Safety
13.4. Environmental Issues
13.5. Cost Issues
13.6. Past/Present Applications, Activities and Markets
13.6.1. Notable Past Battery Energy Storage System Installations
13.6.2. Notable Present Battery Energy Storage System Installations
13.6.3. Remote Area Power Supplies Systems
13.6.4. Research and Development Activities
13.6.5. Contribution of Lead-Acid to Global Energy Storage
Acronyms and Initialisms
Symbols
Further reading
14. Nickel-Cadmium and Nickel-Metal Hydride Battery Energy Storage / Michael Lippert
14.1. Introduction
14.2. Ni-Cd and Ni-MH Technologies
14.2.1. Ni-Cd and Ni-MH Basic Reactions
14.2.2. Materials
14.2.3. Alkaline Cell and Battery Designs
14.3. Electrical Performance and Lifetime and Ageing Aspects
14.3.1. General Charge-Discharge Characteristics
14.3.2. Lifetime: Ageing Processes
14.3.3. Storage Conditions
14.3.4. Self-discharge
14.4. Environmental Considerations
14.4.1. Materials Availability
14.4.2. Legislative Considerations
14.4.3. Recycling
14.5. Actual Status
14.5.1. Overview of Alkaline Batteries for Energy Storage
14.6. Conclusion
Further Reading
15. High-Temperature Sodium Batteries for Energy Storage / David A.J. Rand
15.1. Fundamentals of High-Temperature Sodium Battery Technology
15.1.1. Sodium-Sulphur
15.1.2. Sodium
Metal-Halide
15.1.3. Beta Alumina
15.1.4. Basic Cell Reactions
15.1.5. Materials of Construction
15.1.6. Cell and Battery Designs
15.1.7. Typical Applications
15.2. Electrical Performance and Ageing
15.2.1. Efficiency
15.2.2. Specific Energy/Power, Energy/Power Density
15.2.3. Lifetime: Influence of Operating Conditions on Ageing Processes
15.2.4. Self-Discharge
15.3. Battery Management
15.3.1. State-of-Charge Measurement
15.3.2. Safety
15.4. Environmental Issues
15.4.1. Availability of Materials
15.4.2. Life-Cycle Analysis
15.4.3. Legislative Restriction
15.4.4. Recycling
15.4.5. Energy Required for Production
15.5. Cost Issues
15.5.1. Sodium-Sulphur
15.5.2. Sodium-Metal-Halide
15.6. Current Status
15.6.1. Present Applications and Markets
15.6.2. Research and Development Activities
15.7. Concluding Remarks
Acronyms and Initialisms
Symbols and Units
References
Further Reading
16. Lithium Battery Energy Storage: State-of-the-Art Including Lithium-Air and Lithium-Sulphur Systems / Peter Kurzweil
16.1. Energy Storage in Lithium Batteries
16.1.1. Basic Cell Chemistry
16.1.2. Positive Electrode Materials
16.1.3. Negative Electrode Materials
16.1.4. Electrolytes
16.1.5. Separators
16.1.6. Cell and Battery Designs
16.1.7. Typical Applications
16.2. Electrical Performance, Lifetime, and Ageing
16.2.1. Efficiency
16.2.2. Power-to-Energy Ratio
16.2.3. Energy and Power Densities
16.2.4. Lifetime and Ageing Processes
16.2.5. Capacity Depending on Temperature and Discharge Rate
16.2.6. Self-Discharge Rate
16.2.7. Dynamic Behaviour
16.3. Accessories
16.3.1. Electronics and Charging Devices
16.3.2. Monitoring Systems
16.3.3. Safety Devices
16.3.4. Diagnosis and Monitoring Concepts
16.4. Environmental Issues
16.4.1. Availability of Lithium
16.4.2. Life Cycle Analysis
16.4.3. Legislative Restriction
16.4.4. Recycling
16.5. Cost Issues
16.5.1. Cost Projections
16.5.2. Anode Materials (Negative)
16.5.3. Cathode Materials (Positive)
16.5.4. Electrolyte
16.6. State-of-the-Art
16.6.1. Industrial Activities
16.6.2. Research Activities and Challenges
16.6.3. Worldwide Annual Turnover
Abbreviations and Symbols
References
17. Redox Flow Batteries / Maria Skyllas-Kazacos
17.1. Introduction
17.2. Flow Battery Chemistries
17.2.1. Zinc-Based Flow Batteries
17.2.2. Redox Flow Batteries
17.3. Cost Considerations
17.4. Summary and Conclusions
References
Further readings
18. Metal Storage/Metal Air (Zn, Fe, Al, Mg) / Hajime Arai
18.1. General Technical Description of the Technology
18.1.1. Basic Reactions
18.1.2. Materials
18.1.3. Cell and Battery Designs
18.1.4. Typical Applications
18.2. Electrical Performance, Lifetime, and Ageing Aspects
18.2.1. Efficiency as f(T, I)
18.2.2. Power-to-Energy Ratio
18.2.3. Energy and Power Densities (Volume, Gravimetric)
18.2.4. Lifetime: Ageing Processes, Operating Conditions Affecting Ageing (T, DoD)
18.2.5. Capacity Depending on Temperature and Discharge Rate
18.2.6. Self-discharge Rate (Dependence on Temperature, Starting at Full-Charged System and Starting at 50% State of Charge)
18.2.7. Dynamic Behaviour
18.3. Necessary Accessories
18.3.1. Electronics
18.3.2. Charging Devices
18.3.3. Necessary Monitoring Systems
18.3.4. Safety Devices
18.3.5. Needs for Diagnosis and Monitoring Concepts
18.4. Environmental Issues
18.4.1. Materials Availability
18.4.2. Life Cycle Analysis
18.4.3. Critical Legislative Restriction
18.4.4. Recycling Quotas
18.4.5. Energy Needed for the Production
18.5. Cost Issues (Today, in 5 years, and in 10 years)
18.5.1. Material Costs, Costs per Power and per Energy, Investment, and Throughput Costs of Kilowatt-hour
18.6. Actual Status
18.6.1. Overview of Industrial Activities (Existing Applications and Markets)
18.6.2. R & D Activities (Major Research Institutions and Companies)
18.6.3. Worldwide Annual Turnover with the Storage Technology, Installed Capacity
Further Reading
19. Electrochemical Double-layer Capacitors / Peter Kurzweil
19.1. Technical Description
19.1.1. Basic Concepts of Double-Layer-Capacitance
19.1.2. Carbon Materials
19.1.3. Metal Oxide Technology
19.1.4. Solid-State and Polymer Technology
19.1.5. Electrolyte Solution
19.1.6. Separator
19.1.7. Cell and Stack Designs
19.1.8. Typical Applications
19.2. Electrical Performance, Lifetime, and Ageing Aspects
19.2.1. Specific Energy
19.2.2. Power and Efficiency
19.2.3. Lifetime and Ageing Processes
19.2.4. Capacitance
19.2.5. Self-discharge Rate
19.2.6. Dynamic Behaviour
19.2.7. Modelling of Double-layer Capacitors
19.3. Accessories
19.3.1. Diagnosis and Monitoring Concepts
19.3.2. Safety Issues
19.4. Environmental Issues
19.4.1. Materials Availability
19.4.2. Life-Cycle Analysis
19.4.3. Legislative Restriction
19.5. Cost Issues
19.5.1. Costs Per Energy and Power
19.6. Actual Status
19.6.1. International Performance Data
19.6.2. Practical Electrode Fabrication
19.6.3. Worldwide Annual Turnover
Symbols and Units
Abbreviations and Acronyms
Further Reading
pt.
III System Aspects
20. Battery Management and Battery Diagnostics / Angel Kirchev
20.1. Introduction
20.2. Battery Parameters
Monitoring and Control
20.2.1. Battery Voltage
20.2.2. Charge and Discharge Current
20.2.3. Battery Capacity
20.2.4. Battery Resistance and Battery Impedance
20.2.5. Battery Power and Battery Energy
20.2.6. Battery Temperature
20.3. Battery Management of Electrochemical Energy Storage Systems
20.3.1. General
20.3.2. Battery Management of Aqueous Electrochemical Energy Storage Systems
20.3.3. Battery Management of Non-aqueous Electrochemical Energy Storage Systems
20.4. Battery Diagnostics
20.4.1. Data Storage vs Energy Storage
20.4.2. Non-invasive Battery Diagnostics
20.4.3. Invasive Battery Diagnostics
20.5. Implementation of Battery Management and Battery Diagnostics
20.6. Conclusions
References
21. Life-Cycle Cost Calculation and Comparison for Different Reference Cases and Market Segments / Dirk Uwe Sauer
21.1. Motivation
21.2. Methodology
21.2.1. Parameters Characterizing the Storage Technology
21.2.2. Parameters Characterizing the Storage Application
21.2.3. Calculated Parameters
21.2.4. LCC Calculation
21.3. Reference Cases
21.3.1. Long-term Storage
21.3.2. High-Voltage Grid Load-Levelling
21.3.3. Medium-Voltage Grid Peak-Shaving
21.3.4. Decentralized Storage Systems in Low-Voltage Grids
21.3.5. Electrical Network and Interest Rate
21.4. Example Results
21.4.1. Long-term Storage
21.4.2. High-Voltage Grid Load-Levelling
21.4.3. Medium-Voltage Grid Peak-Shaving
21.4.4. Decentralized Storages in Low-Voltage Grid
21.5. Sensitivity Analysis
21.5.1. Dependence on Electricity Price
21.5.2. Dependence on Capital Costs (Interest Rate)
21.5.3. Dependence on Number of Cycles
22. 'Double-Use' of Storage Systems / Dirk Uwe Sauer
22.1. Introduction
22.2. Uninterruptible Power Supply Systems
22.3. Electric Vehicle Batteries
Vehicle-to-Grid
22.3.1. Introduction
22.3.2. Car Usage
22.3.3. Vehicle Availability
22.3.4. Vehicle-to-Grid Concept
22.3.5. Applications Where Double-Use is not Useful or is of Only Limited Use
22.4. Photovoltaic Home Storage
22.4.1. Introduction
22.4.2. System Designs and Benefits
22.4.3. Unloading the Grid and Grid Services.
Note continued: 22.5. Second Life of Vehicle Batteries
22.5.1. Strengths and Opportunities of 'Second-Life' Applications
22.5.2. Weakness and Threats of 'Second-Life' Applications
22.5.3. Summary on 'Second-Life' Opportunities
References.

Electrochemical energy storage for renewable sources and grid balancing /

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